Sqc – Statistical Quality Control

Statistical quality control (SQC) The application of statistical techniques to measure and evaluate the quality of a product, service, or process. Two basic categories: I. Statistical process control (SPC): – the application of statistical techniques to determine whether a process is functioning as desired II. Acceptance Sampling: – the application of statistical techniques to determine whether a population of items should be accepted or rejected based on inspection of a sample of those items. Quality Measurement: Attributes vs Variables Attributes:Characteristics that are measured as either â€Å"acceptable† or â€Å"not acceptable†, thus have only discrete, binary, or integer values. Variables: Characteristics that are measured on a continuous scale. Statistical Process Control (SPC) Methods Statistical process control (SPC) monitors specified quality characteristics of a product or service so as: To detect whether the process has changed in a way that w ill affect product quality and To measure the current quality of products or services. Control is maintained through the use of control charts. The charts have upper and lower ontrol limits and the process is in control if sample measurements are between the limits. Control Charts for Attributes P Charts – measures proportion defective. C Charts – measures the number of defects/unit. Control Charts for Variables X bar and R charts are used together – control a process by ensuring that the sample average and range remain within limits for both. Basic Procedure 1. An upper control limit (UCL) and a lower control limit (LCL) are set for the process. 2. A random sample of the product or service is taken, and the specified quality characteristic is measured. . If the average of the sample of the quality characteristic is higher than the upper control limit or lower than the lower control limit, the process is considered to be â€Å"out of control†. CONTROL CHA RTS FOR ATTRIBUTES p-Charts for Proportion Defective p-chart: a statistical control chart that plots movement in the sample proportion defective (p) over time Procedure: 1. take a random sample and inspect each item 2. determine the sample proportion defective by dividing the number of defective items by the sample size 3. lot the sample proportion defective on the control chart and compare with UCL and LCL to determine if process is out of control The underlying statistical sampling distribution is the binomial distribution, but can be approximated by the normal distribution with: mean = u = np (Note – add the bars above the means used in all the equations in this section) standard deviation of p: sigmap = square root of (p(1 -p ) / n) where p = historical population proportion defective and n = sample size Control Limits: UCL = u + z sigmap LCL = u – z sigma p is the number of standard deviations from the mean. It is set based how certain you wish to be that when a l imit is exceeded it is due to a change in the process proportion defective rather than due to sample variability. For example: If z = 1 if p has not changed you will still exceed the limits in 32% of the samples (68% confident that mean has changed if the limits are exceeded. z = 2 – limits will be exceeded in 4. 5 (95. 5 % confidence that mean has changed) z = 3 – limits will be exceeded in . 03 (99. % confidence) c-Charts for Number of Defects Per Unit c-chart: a statistical control chart that plots movement in the number of defects per unit. Procedure: 1. randomly select one item and count the number of defects in that item 2. plot the number of defects on a control chart 3. compare with UCL and LCL to determine if process is out of control The underlying sampling distribution is the Poisson distribution, but can be approximated by the normal distribution with: mean = c standard deviation = square root of c here c is the historical average number of defects/unit Con trol Limits: UCL = c + z c LCL = c – z c Control Charts for Variables Two charts are used together: R-chart (â€Å"range chart†) and X barchart (â€Å"average chart†) Both the process variability (measured by the R-chart) and the process average (measured by the X bar chart) must be in control before the process can be said to be in control. Process variability must be in control before the X bar chart can be developed because a measure of process variability is required to determine the -chart control limits.R-Chart for Process Variability: UCLR = D4(R) LCLR = D3(R) where is the average of past R values, and D3 and D4 are constants based on the sample size -Chart for Process Average: UCLR = X bar + A2(R) LCL = X bar – A2(R) where X bar is the average of several past values, and A2 is a constant based on the sample size Other Types of Attribute-Sampling Plans Double-Sampling Plan: Specifies two sample sizes (n1 and n2) and two acceptance levels (c1 and c2 ) 1. f the first sample passes (actual defects c1), the lot is accepted 2. if the first sample fails and actual defects > c2, the lot is rejected 3. if first sample fails but c1 < actual defects c2, the second sample is taken and judged on the combined number of defectives found. Sequential-Sampling Plan: Each time an item is inspected, a decision is made whether to accept the lot, reject it, or continue sampling. Acceptance Sampling Goal: To accept or reject a batch of items.Frequently used to test incoming materials from suppliers or other parts of the organization prior to entry into the production process. Used to determine whether to accept or reject a batch of products. Measures number of defects in a sample. Based on the number of defects in the sample the batch is either accepted or rejected. An acceptance level c is specified. If the number of defects in the sample is c the atch is accepted, otherwise it is rejected and subjected to 100% inspection. Sqc – Statistical Quality Control Statistical quality control (SQC) The application of statistical techniques to measure and evaluate the quality of a product, service, or process. Two basic categories: I. Statistical process control (SPC): – the application of statistical techniques to determine whether a process is functioning as desired II. Acceptance Sampling: – the application of statistical techniques to determine whether a population of items should be accepted or rejected based on inspection of a sample of those items. Quality Measurement: Attributes vs Variables Attributes:Characteristics that are measured as either â€Å"acceptable† or â€Å"not acceptable†, thus have only discrete, binary, or integer values. Variables: Characteristics that are measured on a continuous scale. Statistical Process Control (SPC) Methods Statistical process control (SPC) monitors specified quality characteristics of a product or service so as: To detect whether the process has changed in a way that w ill affect product quality and To measure the current quality of products or services. Control is maintained through the use of control charts. The charts have upper and lower ontrol limits and the process is in control if sample measurements are between the limits. Control Charts for Attributes P Charts – measures proportion defective. C Charts – measures the number of defects/unit. Control Charts for Variables X bar and R charts are used together – control a process by ensuring that the sample average and range remain within limits for both. Basic Procedure 1. An upper control limit (UCL) and a lower control limit (LCL) are set for the process. 2. A random sample of the product or service is taken, and the specified quality characteristic is measured. . If the average of the sample of the quality characteristic is higher than the upper control limit or lower than the lower control limit, the process is considered to be â€Å"out of control†. CONTROL CHA RTS FOR ATTRIBUTES p-Charts for Proportion Defective p-chart: a statistical control chart that plots movement in the sample proportion defective (p) over time Procedure: 1. take a random sample and inspect each item 2. determine the sample proportion defective by dividing the number of defective items by the sample size 3. lot the sample proportion defective on the control chart and compare with UCL and LCL to determine if process is out of control The underlying statistical sampling distribution is the binomial distribution, but can be approximated by the normal distribution with: mean = u = np (Note – add the bars above the means used in all the equations in this section) standard deviation of p: sigmap = square root of (p(1 -p ) / n) where p = historical population proportion defective and n = sample size Control Limits: UCL = u + z sigmap LCL = u – z sigma p is the number of standard deviations from the mean. It is set based how certain you wish to be that when a l imit is exceeded it is due to a change in the process proportion defective rather than due to sample variability. For example: If z = 1 if p has not changed you will still exceed the limits in 32% of the samples (68% confident that mean has changed if the limits are exceeded. z = 2 – limits will be exceeded in 4. 5 (95. 5 % confidence that mean has changed) z = 3 – limits will be exceeded in . 03 (99. % confidence) c-Charts for Number of Defects Per Unit c-chart: a statistical control chart that plots movement in the number of defects per unit. Procedure: 1. randomly select one item and count the number of defects in that item 2. plot the number of defects on a control chart 3. compare with UCL and LCL to determine if process is out of control The underlying sampling distribution is the Poisson distribution, but can be approximated by the normal distribution with: mean = c standard deviation = square root of c here c is the historical average number of defects/unit Con trol Limits: UCL = c + z c LCL = c – z c Control Charts for Variables Two charts are used together: R-chart (â€Å"range chart†) and X barchart (â€Å"average chart†) Both the process variability (measured by the R-chart) and the process average (measured by the X bar chart) must be in control before the process can be said to be in control. Process variability must be in control before the X bar chart can be developed because a measure of process variability is required to determine the -chart control limits.R-Chart for Process Variability: UCLR = D4(R) LCLR = D3(R) where is the average of past R values, and D3 and D4 are constants based on the sample size -Chart for Process Average: UCLR = X bar + A2(R) LCL = X bar – A2(R) where X bar is the average of several past values, and A2 is a constant based on the sample size Other Types of Attribute-Sampling Plans Double-Sampling Plan: Specifies two sample sizes (n1 and n2) and two acceptance levels (c1 and c2 ) 1. f the first sample passes (actual defects c1), the lot is accepted 2. if the first sample fails and actual defects > c2, the lot is rejected 3. if first sample fails but c1 < actual defects c2, the second sample is taken and judged on the combined number of defectives found. Sequential-Sampling Plan: Each time an item is inspected, a decision is made whether to accept the lot, reject it, or continue sampling. Acceptance Sampling Goal: To accept or reject a batch of items.Frequently used to test incoming materials from suppliers or other parts of the organization prior to entry into the production process. Used to determine whether to accept or reject a batch of products. Measures number of defects in a sample. Based on the number of defects in the sample the batch is either accepted or rejected. An acceptance level c is specified. If the number of defects in the sample is c the atch is accepted, otherwise it is rejected and subjected to 100% inspection.

Experimental Hypnosis

Hypnosis is defined as â€Å"A trancelike state resembling sleep, usually induced by a therapist by focusing a subject's attention, that heightens the subject's receptivity to suggestion. The uses of hypnosis in medicine and psychology include recovering repressed memories, modifying or eliminating undesirable behavior (such as smoking), and treating certain chronic disorders, such as anxiety† (American Heritage, 2012). Its name comes from the Greek language â€Å"hypnos† meaning sleep. Hypnosis is a natural state of mind.This state of mind is known as hyper- suggestibility where a subject is more prone to change if guided by the hypnotherapist in the direction of his desire. While in this hyper- suggestible state, the mind has the power to change an association, get rid of old pains or accept new behaviors. The first to start studying the use of hypnosis was Franz Anton Mesmner in 1700, a Swiss medical doctor that noticed that patients with pains responded very well to inductions of sleep, which allowed them to lower their pains. A revision of Mesmer’s theories was made by the English Doctor James Braid.He coined the name hypnosis, and that is why he is regarded as the father of hypnosis. Dr. Braid used hypnosis extensively in his medical practice. Sigmund Freud also used hypnosis and was impressed by the therapeutic potential of hypnosis for neurotic disorders, but his focus on the mysterious element of sexual nature made him abandon it for psychoanalysis, and with the beginning of psychoanalysis the focus on hypnosis started to decline. In 1958 the American Medical Association recognized hypnosis as a legitimate cure in medicine.In May 2001, at the Australian Medical Association, Dr.  K Phelps stated, â€Å"as evidence emerges that some complementary medicines are effective, then it becomes ethically impossible for the medical profession to ignore them† (Cowen, 2004). In this statement she is referring to some alternative medici ne practices including hypnosis. The mind is the power behind it all, and hypnosis guides this power to heal mind, body and soul; thus hypnosis is a useful tool to cure mental disorders. Hypnosis should be used more often in psychological treatment because it is an effective, safe and proven tool.Hypnosis was proved to be effective by several Doctors and therapists in the field. It all started with Mesmer and his animal magnetism. He noticed that by passing his hands close to the body to allow the â€Å"magnetic fluid† to flow from his fingertips into the client’s body, he could restore balance and health, and it only took three sessions for a diseased person to heal. People were amazed by how clients would be cured from incurable conditions, but Mesmer clashed with the medical field when a client cured of blindness relapsed. Then he moved to Paris where he practiced magnetism.James Braid was an English surgeon and writer on hypnotism. He is the one that coined the nam e hypnosis and demonstrated that it was not animal magnetism, but it was just achieved by suggestion. His writings are what led to future research and development of hypnosis and the investigation of what was later called the unconscious mind (E. Hilgard, 1984). Milton Erickson, the founder of Hypnocounseling, was a major influence in practices of counseling and psychotherapy, and his methods are without doubt the fasted growing in the western world in the field of psychotherapy.He was also one of the most prominent founders of neurolinguistic programming (NLP). He was also very influential in the in family and brief systemic therapy model of the Mental Health Research Institute. His work has been so original and creative that he was nicknamed â€Å"Mr. Hypnosis† (Gunnison, H. , 1990). He also was the founder and first president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, as well as the first editor of its journal. Erickson goal was to give back to their clients their pers onal power and control over their lives with the use of â€Å"implied directive language.†Instead of saying, â€Å"Sit back in the chair, relax, and listen to my voice†, he would say: â€Å"You can sit back in the chair and you might even relax and listen to my voice. † â€Å"The word can suggests that you have the ability to sit back in your chair and also sets up an implied choice, that ‘you can choose to sit back in the chair, if you want to-or not’† (Gunnison, H. , 1990). â€Å"The use of words such as can, might, could, and possibly makes for communication that remains tentative, open, highly respectful of the client’s world and wishes, and implying client choice and power.IDL exists at the heart of hypnocounseling. † (Gunnison, H. , 1990). His hypnotic language was focused on enabling the clients to believe that they could change, since the root of all people’s problem is that they do not know how to change and they do not think they can change. But Erickson knew that changing is easy; the way to make it happen is for the person to believe they can change and to make a â€Å"choice,† to make the â€Å"decision† to change. Without that permission the mind will always keep the old program because the subconscious mind follows orders and past decisions like a slave.It will not change because one hopes to change or because one wants to change. It only changes when one tells it to change, when one makes that important decision like: I decided to quit smoking; I am doing it today; I decided to let go of all past hurts and to be happy now; I choose to be a success regardless of what others think of me, and so on. In order to enable the client Erickson would use suggestions such as: â€Å"You can begin to change when you choose implies that you have the ability to change and the presupposition denotes, of course, that you will when you choose to.This is an effective strategy for changin g perceptions† (Gunnison, H. , 1990). Another of his powerful suggestions is: â€Å"You can now curiously take this time to wonder about different ways to change. Isn’t it exciting to realize that you have the power to choose different ways of being? † (Gunnison, H. , 1990) (The italicized words will be said with a higher or lower tone of voice to emphasize them. Another successful technique is called Reframing. â€Å"Reframing represents the idea that individuals can â€Å"break out of limiting misconceptions to a broader understanding of human possibilities† (Gunnison, H., 1990).A picture will look totally different in a pink frame or in a black frame. In order to accomplish this, Erickson would use techniques like: â€Å"You know I can hear your sadness and loss and at the same time I sense a very deep courage inside of you that you can draw upon. Isn’t it interesting that we can discover strengths we didn’t realize we had during times o f travail and pain? † (Gunnison, H. , 1990). Hypnosis is safe. The general belief about hypnosis is that the hypnotist will be in control of the client’s mind while under hypnosis.The truth is that every form of hypnosis is a form of self-hypnosis where the hypnotist just guides the client to let go of the old associations and accept new ones. The heightened concentration created by hypnosis makes resource retrieval and association easier for the client's Adult and Child. Hypnosis allows the client to effortlessly shift attention to supportive ego states and build strong associations between each of them and offers the resources the Child needs to maintain the re-decision†(Singer, W. B. , 1952).Change is a much easier process under hypnosis, where the mind is more suggestible and open to change than during the wakening state where the mind is protecting itself from change. The way the session works is that the hypnotist tests responsiveness to find out the level o f susceptibility with suggestibility techniques. The session starts with the induction technique that allows the client to enter the hypnotic state; deepening techniques are then used to facilitate a deeper state of hypnosis and therefore of susceptibility.While the client is in this deeper state, the hypnotist will use hypnotic suggestions to attempt to create new associations in the client’s mind while allowing old unwanted associations to be removed. There are many things the hypnotist can do while the client is in this state. A very successful technique is the abreaction extinction technique. This technique is very useful for people that had small or big traumas that created a mental or psychosomatic scar. This metaphorical â€Å"scar† is the one responsible, most of the time, for client’s disorders like depression, anxiety, guilt and sabotaging behavior, addictions, and so on.The abreaction happens when the hypnotist asks the subconscious mind to bring up a significant emotional event that hurt and caused the particular issue that the client wants fixed. The subconscious will bring up an image of an event or a memory that created the problem in the first place. The hypnotist can then extinguish the cause and create new associations to replace it. I had a personal experience with this last one where for nine years I suffered from debilitating, atrocious pain cramps from periods. While I was under hypnosis and I was asked for the memory to come up, a memory actually did come up.It was an event that was not that big a deal for me, but as soon as I saw that memory in my mind I thought: I must have done something wrong to deserve this. This was a phrase that continuously I would never even think about having, but my subconscious did. The skilled hypnotist removed that association and two days later I was shopping with no period cramps, something that never happened in the previous nine years. Another technique that is quite a success is th e switching technique. In this technique the clients are asked to remember an event where they felt how they would like to feel today.For a person that was happy and then got depressed, or for a person that was successful and then got broke, this is a very useful technique. The reason why is that many people are happy as they grow up; as kids they play, and their parents take care of the bills and protect them from harm, and everything is wonderful. One day, as grown ups, they get a bad experience. The husband dies, they lose their business or their home, somebody steals from them, and the clients start developing mental distortions or disorders or even start suffering from psychosomatic diseases.With this technique the hypnotist can easily re-create the old association in the client’s mind by simply switching the bad association with the old new one. The clients will then be back to the old happy people they wanted to continue to be. At the end the clients are slowly awakene d. One of the best and most powerful hypnotic techniques is the post-hypnotic suggestion technique. This was greatly used in the Veterans Administration Hospital, Vancouver, Washington, where there were very few beds available and many requests for them.Therefore the hospital adopted the use of hypnotherapy to speed up the improvement of their patients in order to free beds quickly. Patients were given post-hypnotic suggestions that when they were coming to group meetings they were going to discuss their problems and have a high level of motivational participation allowing their patients to improve faster. (Singer, W. B. , 1952). One of the most amazing post-hypnotic suggestion is the one used to change neuron pathways. For example, people that have addictions have automatic responses to triggers. They smoke after dinner, in the car, after class and so on.They have created a habit. In this case the hypnotist gives a post-hypnotic suggestion to reverse the habit. A good suggestion wo uld be: Every time you finish eating, you just enjoy the flavors in your mouth and even if you think about smoking a cigarette, you can’t, so go back to the things you need to be doing. In this post-hypnotic suggestion the clients will be amazed to see that after dinner they will try to go for the cigarette, but they will refuse it. In some hard cases the suggestion would be: Every time you put a cigarette to your mouth you experience that bad taste in your mouth as if it were puke.Of course the client needs to give permission to this suggestion, but it is very successful and many clients, as soon as they put their cigarette in their mouth, they literally will puke: That is how powerful the suggestion is. Another example of post-hypnotic suggestion is people will experience a bad event which will trigger them to become depressed, and days later they forget about the event, but still feel depressed not knowing why. In these cases the hypnotist gives a post-hypnotic suggestion that every time there is a bad event, they can still feel good and move on.Therefore, clients that are in hard life situations and still are able to handle them with a smile on their face, because the suggestion has been programmed and the mind no longer accepts being sad from outside forces. Another very useful post-hypnotic suggestion is for people that focus on problems. The mind can focus on either negative or positive, either problems or solutions. It can only think one thing at the time; therefore if people think about the problem, the mind would not give them a solution.At the same time, if the person focuses on the negative, the mind would not be able to think of the positive; hence, the person focusing on the negative will start to become depressed because the mind only sees negative. This could be represented in John Milton’s quote, â€Å"The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven†. In this case the post-hypnotic sugg estion would create an auto response that every time the person starts to think negative or problems, the mind will quickly just focus on solutions, focus on the positive while fixing the problem.The amazing fact is that this is all it takes to cure depression in a few sessions. This is confirmed by many therapists. One of them, Elke Kellis, wrote that the use of hypnosis has been well documented and is highly effective for depression. â€Å"Hypnosis can be useful in deepening and enhancing particular cognitive interventions such as cognitive restructuring, increasing confidence, coping better with life’s challenges, shifting focus from failure to successes, enhancing a sense of control, improving relaxation, and increasing frustration tolerance† (Kellis, E., 2011).Also, Assen Alladin from the University of Calgary Medical School, Alberta, Canada â€Å"advanced six clinical reasons for using hypnosis in treating depression: hypnosis a) amplifies subjective experience; b) serves as a powerful method for interrupting symptomatic patterns; c) facilitates experiential learning; d) helps to bridge and contextualize responses; e) provides different and more flexible models of inner reality and f) helps to establish focus of attention†. (Alladin, A. , 2010).Hypnosis could cure most people’s problems if the medical field would turn to what really works, rather than synthetic chemicals. In order to do that there needs to be a clear goal in the medical field: find the solution for each patient. This requires too much time and money and doctors need to care a great lot about their patients to switch to something more time and money consuming when they can resort to the lazy, cheap, money building â€Å"magic pill†. Therefore hypnosis is still not as widespread as other therapies.It has been disappearing for the same reason home cooking and exercise have been disappearing. Less work is what people will choose first. As Roberto A. Ingram M. D. states: â€Å"If hypnosis was as respected as morphine, it would become a tremendous weapon in the physician’s armamentarium. † (P. G. O'C. , 1998) â€Å"Hypnosis has been receiving increased attention in the medical literature. It has been considered for use in acute pain management along with a variety of disease states† (P. G. O'C. , 1998).The article â€Å"Hypnotic Analgesia Affects the Processing of Painful Stimuli,† published by the Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, describes some interesting findings: â€Å"Different brain mechanisms are involved in the processing of painful stimuli under hypnotic analgesia and attentional distraction instructions and support previous research findings that the differentiation of behavioral, subjective and electrophysiological responses may be a result of a dissociation between the processing of sensory information and the cognitive evaluation of that information† (Williams, J.D . , Croft, R. J. , Ferdinand, J. J. , & Gruzelier, J. H. , 2011).Hypnosis is a powerful tool in medicine. According to Hammond (2008) hypnosis is so powerful that in the 1800s James Esdaile, an English surgeon stationed in India, did open heart surgery with the sole use of hypnosis as an anesthesia. â€Å"This historic example †¦ provides powerful documentation of the ability of the mind to influence the body†. (Hammond, D. , 2008)Hypnosis is also very effective in the cure of psychosomatic diseases. Many empirical facts prove this, as in the Canadian article â€Å"Treatment of psychosomatic disorders†: â€Å"Many years ago ‘I made wide use of hypnosis for the removal of psychosomatic symptoms ‘by direct suggestion as well as for abreactive purposes. The results obtained in cases of monosymptomatic hysteria were encouraging. In patients with organ neuroses and in those with psychosomatic structural diseases†. (Wittkower, E. , 1964).Hypnotherapy is very successful in curing many diseases, and most of the diseases are psychosomatic (American Medical Association stated that 90% of diseases are indeed psychosomatic). Physicians should do more of it instead of using drugs that have high price tags and terrible side effects. However, it is more profitable and less time consuming to just give a pill that gives the effect the person wants, rather then using time and money to find the source of the problem and eradicate it.In conclusion, hypnosis is the power the heals mind, body and soul. It is a tool that has been researched for years, starting from Messner, a medical doctor in Austria, continuing with with James Braid a surgeon that gave it its name and with Erickson which created many methodologies and suggestions that were highly effective in the cure of mental and physical disorders.Hypnosis gives the therapist the ability to guide the client to remove old negative patterns with the use of abre action extinction techniques an d to replace it with positive association that will in the long run allow the client to be who he/she wants to be and also to lower stress which will improve overall health. Hypnosis is a proven tool to let go of addictions and to cure many mental and physical disorders and the world needs to be informed of its powers in order to get back in charge of its health. There is no â€Å"magic pill†; people need to cure themselves with the possible alternative tools that are out there.

Amundsen and scott

The chilling tundra ot the antarctic restrained anyone trom exploring antarctic tor years. Amundsen and Scott, two very brave men chose to attempt to reach the south pole. The prowess in both men was incredibly heroic. Amundsen and Scott knew It was a treacherous journey but were up for the task. Only one man could be the first, and Amundsen was most definitely the successor. Amundsen had prepared for this journey all his life. While Scott flew by the seat of his pants, going on this expedition was Just one of many things he had done without lan.It was a provisional job. Scott knew he wouldn't be able to keep up with it for that long. Scott was temerltly. Scott didn't think twice about his adventure, thus leading to him being unprepared on his trip. Scott was physically prepared but not fully prepared mentally. Amundsen on the other hand examined every detail of his expedition piece by piece, ensuring that he would have the best of the best and be fully prepared. Always planning ever y move he made. The equipment they brought and the obstacles they faced were definitely a huge part of their trip.Obstacles including weather and the natural environment. Of course Scott and Amundsens trip differed between what exactly happened but Scotts body obviously couldn't procure the harsh weather the arctic had In store for him. Yet Amundsen still had trouble handling the weather he could still cope with it. Also, equipment was what saved Amundsen. Amundsen brought around a hundred dogs. He was well prepared bringing everything he would ever need and then some on the trip. While scott packed light rather than packing what he needed. Luck and fate played a large part In the story.Just because Amundsen was stopped when he was so close to the pole doesn't mean he tailed. He had the experience, the Journey and the lesson that Is Irreplaceable. Scott may of got to the pole, but whats it worth if he died. He's not alive to be a success. Considering Scott was completely unprepared it was luck that he made it to the pole. Knowing he was oblivious to what was really happening out in the abject temperatures. Yet it was fate that he didn't make It home safely. Amundsen on the other hand had fate on his side, he hadn't made it to the pole. ich must of been meant to be. because If he made It he very well could of died. It was fate that he got to come home to keep on living a life rather than Scott who died an inexpedient death along side his team out in the icy cold. Making it to the pole and dying doesn't make you a hero nor does it make you smart. You are both stupid and unheroic. Yes Scott died trying to be a success, but he tOf2 naa Tallea. I ne Tame deserves to go to Amundsen. Amundsen was smart enougn to know what he was doing and how it could drastically change the outcome of his trip f he kept on going.Amundsen is the hero because he turned back. He was able to say i tried, and i my not of made it but i got extremely close and I am alive to tell a story. Th at is a true successor. In the end the successor is Amundsen no doubt. He dreamed of the day for years and years. It would be cruel if you took the rightful fame away from him. He knew what he wanted to do for years and years. Scott Just decided one day on a whim. Amundsen deserves to be remember Just as well if not greater than Scott.

The Manhattan Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Manhattan Project - Research Paper Example (Hewlett, 1962) The overall cost of $2 billion USD requiring over 130,000 people on thirty sites in three different countries would pay for a military, political, and cultural transformation that would define the nightmares of the age to come. The initial weapon itself, the fission warhead functioned exclusively through the splitting of radioactive, fissile uranium, creating a chain-reaction that leads to the splitting of additional atoms of fissile uranium for a release of energy thousands of times greater that anything which could be achieved using the trinitrotoluene (TNT) high-explosives that were prevalent early in the war. Specifically, the type of uranium used was the isotope (U-235), the difficulty in the procurement and purification of this precise form was the reason why 130,000 people were required. The Gun method requires one plug or bullet of fissionable uranium fired at a larger mass of uranium; critical mass is achieved when the two collide. Implosion requires surrounding the fissionable mass with high-explosive shaped charges that detonate inwards, compressing the mass and resulting in a chain-reaction. It is possible to combine one or more of these systems for daisy-chain successive detonations, creating weapons of compounded magnitude beyond the immediate purposes of a military campaign. (Life, Editors 1961) Such a threat no doubt adding radioactive fuel to the fires of nuclear hysteria that gripped the nation in the subsequent decade. The most immediate consequences of the Manhattan Project led to Japan being the only nation that sustained nuclear attack in time of war. Germanys surrender in the Spring on 1945 prevented them from being a threat in time for the first Little-Boy to be constructed. It is known, however that the Nazi did succeed in acquiring supplies of heavy water, containing the deuterium that would have aided

In what ways do colonialist ideas continue to influence contemporary Essay - 1

In what ways do colonialist ideas continue to influence contemporary culture Describe with reference to fashion, literature, fi - Essay Example In the modern world, both colonialism and imperialism are practiced indirectly in various nations across the world. Nations with political and economic superiority across the world, such as the US and other European nations, exercise direct and indirect global control. The dominant powerful nations are using grounds, such as art, film, literature, and fashion to ensure a constant global expansion of their dominance. Often, imperialism is justified as a means of bringing people the blessings of a superior and modern way of life or of liberating them from tyrannical rule. The act results from a variety of causes including economic pressures, greed, human aggressiveness, search for security, prestige, search for power, humanitarianism, national emotions and many other factors. These motivating factors make it difficult to eradicate imperialism. However, they are also very beneficial especially for nations susceptible to victimization because they make it easy for them to suspect policie s that might turn out to be imperialistic (Sartre, 2001). For example, some states in the Third World have accused former colonial masters and other powerful nations of neocolonialism. The post-colonial theory clearly explains the modern spread of colonial ideas in various forms. Post-colonial theory involves the study of interactions between colonialist nations and the societies that they colonized (Gandhi, 1988). The theory examines the effects of the domination and colonization of non-European people, land, and cultures. The key concepts in this theory include history of colonialism and representation, and identity of modern cultures and other practices (Gandhi, 1988). Majority of studies have shown that Western traditions and cultural practices especially regarding thought, music, fashion, and literature dominate the global culture. Non-Western traditions, cultural practices, and other forms of expression are widely excluded and marginalized in modern practices. This field of po st-colonial studies was greatly influenced by a Palestinian literary critic named Said. Through his popular piece of work known as Orientalism, Said sought to depict how Middle Eastern and African Arab people and their cultures were represented as the exact opposite of occidental and Western cultures (Said, 2003). Orientalism is a reflection of the Western style in restructuring, dominating, and acquiring total control over the East (Celik, 1996). In his literary piece, Said argued that the modern orient representations impose colonial dominations by implying that oriental cultural practices are inferior in relation to Western cultures. The Western culture is brought out as a culture with a rich history, with morally superior and virtuous practices. On the other hand, the oriental culture or third world practices have its history imposed on it by powerful facets with possessive and submissive practices. In addition, the oriental culture is brought out as strange, lazy, and weak and one that promotes immoral and unequal practices (Said, 2003). According to Said’s argument, the Western superior nations are making every effort possible to make the colonized people admit that their culture is inferior, unrealistic and imperfect in character (Said, 2003). The colonizers promote their history, language,

Early childhood. Fundemental movement skills and behaviour Assignment

Early childhood. Fundemental movement skills and behaviour - Assignment Example Observation Techniques The observation techniques that were selected for this opportunity were anecdotal record, checklist, and photo observation, which means antecedents, behaviours, and consequences. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children includes articles 12, 13, and 14 which pertain directly to the observation of children. Article 12 states that â€Å"children have the right to say what they think should happen adults are making decisions about them, and to have their opinions taken into account† (Hobert & Frankel, 2004, p. 2). Article 13 supports the right for children to have information as long as it is not harmful to them. Article 14 says that rights to privacy should be afforded to children (Hobert & Frankel, 2004, p. 2). Keeping this framework in mind, the observational techniques were used in non-invasive and inclusive methods. The advantages of using the anecdotal record is that it allows for an opportunity to use the humanistic approach in order to provide for values to be placed on the nature of what occurs. The disadvantage is that the anecdotal record can be subject to bias and might not reflect the true picture of what has been observed. The checklist provides for a series of milestones to be placed on a list and they can be checked off as they are observed has having been accomplished. The disadvantage is that a checklist does not provide for context to be placed into the checklist and it is a bit removed from the child. Antecedents, behaviours, and consequences is a comprehensive way to look at what is observed and puts the entire experience into context with the time that has passed. The Rogerian Approach provides for looking at what occurs objectively so that it can be objectively evaluated. The disadvantage is that it might be difficult to interpret progress if not enough changes before and after the event. Introduction of Child and Context The child that was chosen for this observational opportunity has been given the name ‘Alice’ for the purposes of this discussion and to protect her identity. Alice was four years and two months old at the time of observing her. She was included in a small group of four other children she played with frequently in the part. Their age range was 3 to 5. The children was included in the games and was intended to extend on the skill of balancing. Interpretation Alice was observed being able to balance using different strategies. The FMS was observed through three games in order to determine if the task was consistently possible for the child. Alice had been observed having some balance issues in the past, but it had not been decided whether or not they indicated a developmental delay, so the three gamers where developed to extend this skill. During the three games, the second game of her balancing on beam was successful as she was balancing alone however the other games disrupted by laughter and not concentrating due to her focus being on oth er children and not on the task. Recommendation for Planning Table The skill was broken down into a series of skills that were needed to accomplish the task. During the time period between the ages of 2 and 6 there are great strides in fundamental movement skill development and a child should be able to stand on one foot or balance by the age of three (Rathus, 2006). The skills for balancing as follows:

Investment Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Investment Risk Management - Essay Example Additionally, the company was reported bankrupt on 15th September 2008 and was ranged among the top 22 financial institutions that experienced the world largest bankruptcy (Ross, 2010). This collapse brought a big shock not only to the U.S economy but to entire world. This is because the company provided financial services not only to the affluent individuals and companies but also to the government. Among the services that were rendered by the company include; banking services, equity investments, consultancy services, buying and selling of treasury securities to mention just but a few (Sorkin, 2008). 1. Factors that contributed to financial failure of the Lehman Brothers Holding Company. According to Azadinamin, 2003 numerous factors contribute to failure of Lehman Brothers Holding Company. ... This led to higher cases of defaults as most of the house holds could not be able to repay the loans and interest rates that were attached on those loans. This consequently led to the collapse of Lehman and brother holding company (Azadinamin, 2003). Additionally, manipulation of financial statement such as balance sheet contributed to failure of Lehman failure. For example; it was reported that fifty billion dollars on loans commitment were intentionally removed from the balance sheet and recorded as sales in the income statements rather than loans. Connectively, the company was operating a negative cash flow statement prior to its collapse. Therefore, I could recommend to the senior management of Lehman brother Company to perform credit selection and moral hazards prior granting mortgages (Azadinamin, 2003). Additionally, Lehman management should avoid unethical accounting practices and propagate high ethical standards in financial reporting. The company should have realistic and a chievable strategies. For example, instead of buying assets and storing them, the company could transfer them to third party and earn more returns. Lehman management focused only at evaluating the balance sheet and ignored cash flow evaluation, making it difficult to detect the potential risk that led to its collapse. Therefore, I could have recommended Lehman management to evaluate all its financial statements in order to detect risk and failures before they occurs and establish necessary mechanism to deal with such failures (Azadinamin, 2003). 2. Sufficiency assessment of risk management techniques used by financial institutions today Financial

Economic essay on Inernational monetary fund report

Economic on Inernational monetary fund report - Essay Example In between 2001 to 2005, The international portfolio assets of United States grew from $2.3 trillion to $ 4.6 trillion. Finding also revealed a decline in home bias and increased investments into alternative vehicles such as hedge funds. It also revealed official sector growth in asset management by Emerging Market official sector and sovereign wealth funds, at the end of year 2005, managing assets predicted to have more than $ 6 trillion. Individual banks, hedge funds, insurance and pension funds face unreliable constraints that affect their investment allocation as they have different objectives. As openness to foreign intermediaries has been growing worldwide, emergence of conglomerates combining banking, securities, assets management etc in one organization have also been made possible by deregulation. Mature market economies and emerging have been affected by institutional globalization. The upward trend has been observed since 1995 in the ratio between global cross-border capital flow and world GDP. Oil producer countries have become large investors in financial instruments, such as bonds and equities. Sovereign wealth funds make such investments directly or by placement of funds with external investment managers. Market estimates reveal that these funds manage over $ 1.4 trillion. Consolidation of the industry has been directed by Merger and Acquisition (M & A); ongoing securitization and the expansion of derivatives markets has allowed institutions to transfer within and across the borders. Institutional globalization affects both, emerging and mature markets economics because some emerging market – based financial institutions operate on international level. We shall be discussing

If you would provide a 5-6 page paper on Groupon, applying the Research

If you would provide a 5-6 page on Groupon, applying the principles of marketing - Research Paper Example The company offers a bundle of coupons with a target in mind; the target being a certain number of people willing to avail the particular product or service. If that target is reached, then that product/service is made available to the consumers, otherwise it’s not. The retailers treat these coupons as sales promotion or quantity discounts. The consumers pay for their purchase (coupon for a particular commodity or facility) to Groupon and it then splits the money charged with the retailer who provides that particular product or service to the consumers. Marketing and the Marketing process: The process of controlling and managing cost-effective and advantageous consumer associations is known as marketing. This process has two broad objectives which are: firstly to maintain and positively develop relationship with existing customers by ensuring customer satisfaction and secondly, to draw fresh clients with the help of a unique selling point that gives them an edge over their com petitors and the fresh clients recognize and cash this niche. The key to successful product marketing lies in the market understanding of the marketer, who should know the market trends as to what the consumers want or need, and then develops the product or service, keeping in mind the consumer`s desires which live up to their name and expectations. Then, the product or services must be priced in such a way that it is within the purchasing power of the target market, and its distribution and promotion should be such that the target market has easy access to it and its promoted in a way that it occupies the right place in the minds of the consumers. If all these steps are followed correctly and effectively then it ensures the success of the product or service. (Kotler and Armstrong 4-5) Groupon primarily focuses on major geographical locations where people have easy access to the internet; are literate, and there are successful companies operating in those areas who can offer the pro ducts and services and then, it approaches those companies with its offers and from there on, their marketing process proceeds accordingly. The company is following the marketing process very well. It analyses the major geographical locations to gain knowledge about the needs and wants of the customers of that particular location. It then approaches those companies who are willing to and can fulfil the wants and needs of the consumers’ while in step with the bundle coupon offering of Groupon. Next, they design a customer-driven marketing strategy by defining their target market and the best possible way to approach and serve their target market. Currently, their target market primarily comprises of youthful, cultured, and literate female clientele, since at present, the products and services they offer comprise mostly of fitness and beauty products and services. To approach their target market, they have come up with the unique and innovative concept of offering coupons (whic h offer a discount) on their website, and this is also their unique selling point and the quality that gives them an edge over competitors. Then with the aid of the marketing mix, the company prepares and integrated marketing plan and program so as to successfully deliver the promised value to its customers. Next comes the most important step in the marketing process, which is building customer relationships, and the company does so by fulfilling its promises and

Personal Statment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal Statment - Essay Example Barely had I recovered from this depression when I received the hardest ever blow, which hit me like a bullet - the death of the person dearest to me, who meant the world to me - my mother. My mothers death only increased the admiration and respect that I had for her. She was an icon of love and understanding. She talked about colleges before I had even heard of high school. Her belief in me and her determination that I would go to a prestigious college and earn a degree aroused me with a jerk and made me want to work even harder. However, after her death my heart, along with my will power to succeed, died along with her. I must admit it was the hardest obstacle I went through. At the same time, I am also proud that I was able to overcome it; it took a couple of years, but I guess I am on my way there. I was again able to join activities that I loved, such as being in several sports teams like basketball and volleyball especially. I was even the captain of both these teams. Joining Model United Nations (MUN) helped me to shift my focus from anger on death into solving and trying to avoid famine and war; in trying so hard to keep children away from undergoing the same experience I did. As the Student Council Treasurer I have been involved in many charitable activities like the blanket drive during the Pakistan earthquake. Working as the assistant director for an Arabic play helped renew my self-confidence. These activities turned out to be not only stress relieving but also made me grow as a person, it made me see life from a different perspective. I have been fortunate to be blessed with little successes along the way - enough to motivate me and keep me going This, apart from filling me with a sense of pride also made me feel responsible. More importantly, it filled me with renewed enthusiasm. I started believing even more firmly that success would follow if I were dedicated towards following my dream. I became a mother, taking

Fire Prevention and Safety using modern technology Essay Example for Free

Fire Prevention and Safety using modern technology Essay Technology has helped us in preventing fire incidents. Fire prevention is a proactive way of minimizing the damages or harm caused by a fire incident. It is the responsibility of fire departments which mostly have a Fire Prevention Officer as their head. The function of fire prevention is to spread awareness on how to take precautions against fire. Fire fighters, on the other hand, are assigned the task of extinguishing fires. Fire fighters are also dependant on technology to extinguish fire. All the equipments they use are the consequence on technology. To sum it up, technology has helped us in preventing fire as well as extinguishing it when need be. Technology has helped us enhance our fire safety measures. Fire safety comprises of the precautions we take to decrease the probability of a fire that may be fatal, injurious to people and hazardous to the property. This research paper would analyze how technology helps us prevent and extinguish fire. Modern technology has given us many types of equipment that have helped us prevent fire incidents. In most of the buildings today a fire retardant material is used during construction. There are also some electronic devices such as the smoke detectors. The biggest sign of fire is the smoke. Wherever there is fire, there is smoke. So the fire detectors help identify this symptom. These devices are also very affordable. Many building have smoke detectors in all rooms. It has become a necessary home security appliance. Smoke detectors are perfect for slow kindling fires but for combustible gas explosions modern technology has come up with the gas detectors. Smoke detectors are one of the most important fire safety devices. Natural gas and petroleum gas are the two most widely used gases in daily lives. Due to their harmful nature and properties, any gas leaks could result in dangerous explosions. Gas detectors are continuously monitoring the air and they immediately identify the change in surroundings if there is a gas leakage. They come with audible and visual alarm systems to alert people of the gas leakage. Hence, appropriate action can be taken in time to minimize the consequences. Gas detectors are a useful invention and should be positioned where gas leaks are most expected. Another example of technology that helps us in preventing fire is the fire alarm system. The fire alarm systems come in various varieties. They range from the simple manual alarms to the ones that give verbal warnings of any fire detection. A control panel, notification device, building safety interface and power supply make up a typical fire alarm system. The above mentioned gas and smoke detectors are the initiation devices that inform the alarm that a fire has been detected. Manual alarm system depends on people to detect fire and pull the manual alarm. Some of the other detectors used are the flame detectors and the heat detectors. The notification devices help in informing the people to evacuate the building because of the fire. Many of these devices send a direct signal to the closest fire department. Some of these devices are built to give verbal announcements, and also a visual display for the hearing impaired. The most modern of these devices that are installed in large buildings also provide evacuation instructions so that people evacuate the area in which fire was detected. There are various types of smoke alarms. They mostly fall in the categories of ionization alarms and photoelectric alarms. The former is better for fast flaming fire and the latter is more appropriate for the smoke fire. The combination of both these is the dual sensor smoke alarms (US Fire Administration, 2010). Wireless smoke alarms are one of the latest technological advancement as far as fire alarm systems are concerned. The wireless smoke alarm come in two different categories: Battery powered and Alternate Current powered. The battery powered smoke alarm is just like a normal fire alarm with no wire which saves the families the hassle of wiring and rewiring. The AC powered alarm systems is much more modern and aid in increasing the coverage of the alarm system. So, many smoke alarms can be replace by just a single AC powered alarm system A fire extinguisher, like the fire sprinkler system, is an active fire protection device rather a preventive one. It can not help in cases where there is a large out of control fire. However, it is most appropriate for fires that are limited to the ceilings of the buildings. There are two types of extinguishers: stored pressure and cartridge-operated. In the stored pressure fire extinguisher, the fire fighting agent and the expellant are stored in one chamber. Propellants are chosen keeping in mind the nature of the fire fighting agent. The nitrogen gas is used when the agent is any dry chemical extinguisher. Air is used when there the watery or foamy chemical extinguishers are present. On the other hand, in the cartridge operated extinguishers, the expellant gas and the fire fighting agent are in different chambers. The cartridge containing the expellant is punctured before the propellant and extinguishing agents are exposed to each other. The cartridge operated extinguisher is mostly used in industries where extinguishers have to be used time and again. The benefit these extinguishers give is the prompt recharge. The cartridge operated extinguishers use compressed carbon dioxide whereas the stored pressure extinguishers use nitrogen. Fire extinguishers can be further categorized into handheld and cart-mounted extinguishers. Cart-mounted extinguishers are also known as wheeled extinguishers. Handheld extinguishers are mostly used in homes or small workplaces or schools. The wheeled extinguishers are used in industrial sites, marines, airports, docks and heliports. They are much larger in size and bulky in weight. A fire sprinkler system comprises of a water supply that helps in extinguishing the fire. It is not a preventive tool but rather a cure. It supplies water with sufficient pressure just as the fire is detected. Initially expensive, it has become more affordable with the passage of time. Only a very few people have a fire sprinkler system installed at their homes. However most of them have smoke detectors. Smoke detectors are very important for the building’s safety. However, the best possible safety comes with the installation of fire sprinklers. They do not just help you detect fire but unlike the smoke detectors they help extinguishing it and saving lives. It is very popular in industries but still is not very much utilized in residences. Smoke detectors and sprinklers work best together. Smoke detectors identify the fire and set off the sprinklers. Sprinklers supply water with pressure and extinguish the fire. The only disadvantage of installing a fire sprinkler is that ones the fire has been extinguished people realize that all their belongings have been soaked in water. However this is a little price to pay if the sprinklers help save us our life (Smith, 2008). Technology has been a vital source of fire safety. Technology has always been a source of argument: some favor it, other oppose it. Where some people say that technology itself is the source of most fire incidents, others argue that technology has come up with equipments and devices such as various fire detectors and extinguishers. The contribution of technology in fire safety can not be ignored. To prevent fire, technology has given us smoke detectors, heat detectors, gas detectors, flame detectors and a variety of fire alarm systems. To extinguish fire, technology has provided for us several kinds of fire extinguishers and fire sprinkler systems. We should all make use of such devices and minimize the damage that fire can cause us. Fire incidents are very common and it would be a mistake on our part if we ignore dangers it can cause. References Bellis. M, Fire Sprinkler Systems, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://inventors. about. com/library/inventors/blfiresprinkler. htmUK Fire Service Resources Edwards. T, (2009), Automatic Fire Sprinklers for Your Home, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://ezinearticles. com/? Automatic-Fire-Sprinklers-For-Your-Homeid=321091Group, (2009), Smoke Alarms and Detectors, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://www. fireservice. co. uk/safety/smokealarms. php Safety Products Unlimited, (2009), Kidde Wireless System Components, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://safetyproductsunlimited. com/wireless_smoke_alarm. html Smith R J, (2008), Residential Fire Sprinkler System Advantages, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://ezinearticles. com/? Residential-Fire-Sprinkler-System-Advantagesid=1388738 Santarpia. F, (2010), more security with a fire sprinkler in your house, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://ezinearticles. com/? More-Security-With-a-Fire-Sprinkler-in-Your-Houseid=2229457 US Fire Administration, (December 17, 2010) Smoke Alarms, Retrieved May 22, 2010 from: http://www. usfa. dhs. gov/citizens/all_citizens/home_fire_prev/alarms/

Sudan Education Essay Example for Free

Sudan Education Essay Acknowledgments This report was written with Kevin Watkins of the Centre for Universal Education at the Brookings Institution. Our research was greatly assisted by many individuals and organisations. Several ministers from the Government of the Republic of South Sudan were extremely generous with their time, providing advice and comments on early drafts. Special thanks are due to Joseph Ukel Abongo (Minister for General Education and Instruction), Peter Adwok Nywabi (Minister for Higher Education) and Kosti Manibe Ngai (Minister for Finance and Economic Planning). Senior officials and consultants from a number of ministries provided comments and insights including Esther Akumu (Director for Development Partner Coordination, Ministry of General Education and Instruction), Stephanie Allan (Donor Coordinator, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning), Deng Deng Yai (Undersecretary for General Education and Instruction), Catherine Dom (Technical Adviser, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning), and Moses Mabior, (Director for Aid Coordination, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning). Education in South Sudan: investing in a better future  David Masua (Education Programme Manager, Windle Trust), Sue Nicholson (Education Technical Adviser, Save the Children in South Sudan), and Habibur Rahman (Education Programme Manager, BRAC South Sudan). We also benefited from discussions with Jubabased staff from a number of donor agencies, including Hilde Johnson (Special Representative to the Secretary General on South Sudan), Yasmin Haque (South Sudan Country Representative, UNICEF), William Osafo (Education Team Leader, USAID South Sudan Mission), and Fazle Rabbani (Education Adviser), DFID. Initial findings from the report were presented to a group of non-governmental organisations at a meeting held in London, on 20 March 2012. The subsequent discussions and comments informed the redrafting process. We wish to thank the following organisations for their participation: Action Aid, the Anglican Church, BRAC, the British Council, Camfed, Care International, The Children’s Investment Fund Foundation, Christian Aid, Comic Relief, the Global Campaign for Education, the Open University, Oxfam, Save the Children and VSO. Michael Holman, author and former Africa Editor of the Financial Times, kindly commented on an early draft. While all of the individuals and organisations mentioned above have informed this report, the views expressed are those of the authors alone. Staff working with non-governmental organisations in South Sudan provided invaluable advice based on their programme experience. We are indebted to Caroline De Anna (Education Programme Coordinator, Episcopal Church of Sudan), Reverend Emmanuel (Education Manager, Episcopal Church of Sudan), Emily Lugano (Education Adviser, Save the Children in South Sudan),  6 Foreword: South Sudan – time to act parents everywhere around the world, I know that it is through education that children broaden their horizons and develop the skills they need to realise their potential. Education and learning are the real foundations for opportunity. Today, millions of children around the world are denied a chance to put those foundations in place. Progress towards the 2015 goal of universal primary education is slowing, leaving 67 million primary school age children locked out of classrooms – and many more receiving a sub-standard education. Poverty, child labour, early marriage, and armed conflict are among the scourges holding back progress in education, along with failures of political leadership. The High Level Panel on global education was created to address what I see as a global crisis in education. As co-chair, along with Graca Machel – Madiba’s wife – I have spent time researching that crisis. I have spoken to political leaders, the heads of international agencies, and non-governmental organisations. And I have spent time talking to people at the sharp end of the crisis in education. I have heard agonised stories from parents who want their children to be able to live the life they are capable of living, but are forced by circumstances to settle for something less; and I have spoken to children who are desperate for the education that they know could transform their lives. Africa’s newest nation My work as Co-Chair of the High Level Panel on global education has involved visits to many countries. But there is one country that illustrates more than any other what is not working in the current international aid 7. The Right Honourable Gordon Brown MP, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Co-Chair of the High Level Panel on global education One of the great privileges that I have enjoyed in my political life is the opportunity to meet Nelson Mandela. Like many people around the world, I have been inspired by his life, his courage, and his wisdom. Through his personal example, he has demonstrated that iron resolve backed by practical endeavour and clear strategies can move mountains. Of the many words that I have read by Madiba, there is one sentence that I am always drawn to. It is this: â€Å"There is no passion to be found playing small in settling for a life that is less than the one you are capable of living. † Since becoming a parent I have often thought about these words. Like parents everywhere across the world, I want my children to have the lives they are capable of living. And like architecture on education. That country is South Sudan, Africa’s newest nation. Much has been achieved over the six years that have passed since South Sudan emerged from a brutal and protracted conflict. Yet parents and children are still waiting for an education peace premium – and South Sudan is embarking on independence anchored to the bottom of the world league table on education. Over one million children of primary school age are out of school. Enrolment rates in secondary education are below 10 per cent. In what is a desperate situation for all children, South Sudan’s girls face additional disadvantages. Just 6 per cent of 13 year old girls have completed primary school. So extreme are the gender inequalities that young girls in South Sudan are more than twice as likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth as they are to make it through primary school and into secondary education. Behind these numbers is a vast waste of potential. Getting children into school and providing them with decent quality opportunities for education would help them to build a better future, for themselves and their country. In an increasingly knowledgebased and interconnected world, sustained and shared prosperity depends not on what countries have in terms of natural resources, but on what their citizens are able to learn. For South Sudan’s young people, education is a passport to employment. Education also has a wider role to play. Armed conflict and the threat of violence remains a source of insecurity for many of South Sudan’s people. Many factors are involved, including prejudice, long-standing hostilities, and attitudes that see recourse to violence as legitimate. With the right curriculum in place, the education system could act as a powerful force for peace8 building, the development of shared identity, and the creation of a society that is more resilient and less vulnerable to violence. To its credit, the Government of the Republic of South Sudan (GRSS) is putting in place an education strategy that holds out the promise of a better future. However, it lacks the financial resources, technical capacity and institutional systems to overcome the vast backlog in education provision. That is why the international community has such an important role to play. Several donors, UN agencies and non-governmental organisations have put in place education programmes that are making a difference – but not on the required scale. This paper sets out an agenda for change. It identifies a framework for policies that would: †¢ Bring opportunities for improved education to 2. 5 million children, half of them currently out of school Provide financial support for the education of half-a-million girls Make provision for the education of 300,000 children displaced as a result of armed violence, or living in conflict zones Train 30,000 teachers and build 3,000 schools †¢ †¢ †¢ Education in South Sudan: investing in a better future. Achieving these goals will require additional resources. We set out a financing strategy that includes an increased resource mobilisation effort on the part of the GRSS. Development assistance will have to cover a financing gap of US$1. 6bn over the next four years, or US$400m annually. Our proposals include recommendations for individual donors. The Global Partnership for Education (GPE), the major multilateral mechanism charged with financing efforts to achieve the international development goals, has yet to establish a programme in South Sudan. This is a wasted opportunity – and not just for South Sudan. The GPE needs to establish its credentials as an innovative and dynamic force for change in countries affected by conflict. The World Bank’s International Development Association (IDA) could also play a vital role. We propose a GPE-IDA cofinancing arrangement to mobilise US$180m annually. Other actors also have to step up to the plate. Bilateral donors and the European Commission could mobilise an additional US$100m annually. Non-traditional donors – including China – could be approached. And the Africa Development Bank/Africa Development Fund has developed co-financing mechanisms that are well suited to support the development of education infrastructure. I am, of course, aware that some people will argue that the goals that have been set are too ambitious, that the costs are not affordable, and that South Sudan should concentrate on taking small steps in the right direction, rather than attempting a great leap forward. I do not accept these arguments. In the course of research for this paper I have looked at the programmes of several nongovernmental organisations doing extraordinary work in education. The Ecumenical Church of South Sudan runs the largest teacher-training programme in the country, whilst the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) operates over 500 schools in some of the most difficult parts of the country, providing thousands of children with the hope of a better future. And Save the Children is bringing health and education support to many communities. These and other non-governmental organisations have found ways of delivering results, working with and through government. They are clear that, with additional support, they could scale-up their programmes. The same is true of UN agencies and many bilateral donors. Expanded delivery is held back not by a lack of capacity, but by a lack of predictable finance on a scale commensurate with the problem. Having reviewed the situation in South Sudan I am struck by similarities with other conflictaffected countries. Children in these countries should have first call on international support. Instead, they are pushed to the back of the queue for development assistance. Education is not a priority in the humanitarian aid system – in fact, it accounts for less than 2 per cent of emergency aid. And because the governments of conflict-affected states are often unable – or unwilling – either to deliver services or to meet the reporting standards required by major donors, children and parents are left to fend for themselves. From Somalia and the refugee camps of northern Kenya, to the war zones of north-eastern. Democratic Republic of Congo, conflict is destroying opportunities for education on an epic scale, and the aid system is providing limited protection. As an international community motivated by shared values and a common commitment to education, we must acknowledge this gap in the aid architecture – and then we must fill it. That is why I believe we need a new type of organisation to deliver not just money, but also teachers, books, temporary classrooms, and counsellors trained in trauma management to conflict areas. It is against this background that we are planning to form a new type of organisation called Education without Borders. The aim: to provide a mechanism that galvanises support, coordinates action, and delivers aid and education services to those most in need. This is not an exercise in creating parallel structures. It is an attempt to create a mechanism through which a wide range of actors – the public, teachers and other education professionals, the business 9 community and others – can join a shared effort to keep the flame of education alive for children trapped in conflict. It can achieve for education in broken down areas a little of what Medecins Sans Frontieres and the Red Cross achieve for health. Let me conclude by returning to the country that is the focus for this report. When I think of South Sudan, I think of a people who have shown extraordinary courage in the face of unimaginable adversity. I think of parents who, like you and me, want the best for their children. And I think of children who are filled with talent, potential and hope. It is to the children of South Sudan that I dedicate this report. And it is on their behalf that I ask your support for the proposals it sets out. South Sudan’s children have waited long enough for the education peace premium. And they have a right to expect bold action and our best effort – not half-measures, hesitation and indifference. To paraphrase Madiba we are ‘playing small’ with education in South Sudan. And by playing small we are consigning a generation of children to lives that are immeasurably less than the lives they are capable of living. The children of South Sudan deserve better – and we must do better by them. The Right Honourable Gordon Brown MP, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Co-Chair of the High Level Panel on global education Education in South Sudan: investing in a better future Children at the BRAC supported Hai Kugi School on the outskirts of Juba in South Sudan.  © UNESCO /M. Hofer (2011) 10 Executive Summary I never had the chance to finish school but all my children must have an education. Then they can have the chance of a better life. No one will get anywhere in this country without an education. Beida Ropani, aged 28, farmer, Lora village, Central Equatoria, South Sudan. Education in South Sudan – investing in a better future The newly-independent country of South Sudan is anchored to the bottom of the world league table for education. More than half of its primary school age children – over 1 million in total – are out of school. Young girls are more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth than to graduate from primary school. South Sudan’s young people face restricted opportunities for the education they need to build a better future for themselves and their country. It is time for the world to come together and change this picture. The children of South Sudan have suffered enough. It is time to deliver the education peace premium that their parents hoped for – and that they deserve. The Government of the Republic of South Sudan (GRSS) has set ambitious goals in education but there are daunting obstacles to be overcome. The recent disruption of revenue from oil exports threatens to starve basic service budgets of the financing needed to build schools, health clinics, and vital social and economic infrastructure. Ongoing violence in parts of the country is causing large-scale displacement and dislocation of services. There are problems in governance and in government capacity. The education system is under-financed. Most of the country’s teachers are untrained. There are chronic shortages of classrooms and textbooks. Learning outcomes are abysmal. Set against these challenges there is a vast untapped potential for change. At the heart of that potential are the people of South Sudan. They have shown extraordinary courage, resilience and commitment to education. In the face of overwhelming odds, they have been trying to get their children the schooling they deserve. Enrolment numbers have more than doubled in the five years since the peace agreement. The GRSS has pledged to make education a priority – and that pledge is backed by a strategic plan for the construction of an education system. Donors have a more mixed record. Development assistance for education falls far below the level required to support a breakthrough. The education sector receives a low-level of support and aid efficiency has been hampered by weak coordination. Most bilateral donors are operating programmes on a modest scale. While UNICEF has played an important role in coordination and reconstruction for education, the wider multilateral aid effort has been limited. Other actors are conspicuous by their absence. The Global Partnership for Education (GPE), a multilateral partnership that operates under the financial auspices of the World Bank, rightly describes itself as â€Å"the only multilateral partnership devoted to getting all out-of-school children into school for a quality education. †i Promoting gender 11 equity is one of the GPE’s priorities. South Sudan has a larger proportion of its children out of school than almost any other country in the world, along with the deepest gender inequalities. Yet six years after the peace agreement, the GPE has not yet delivered a programme in South Sudan. Hopes that this would change in early 2012 have not yet been realised. Following a review of the Government of South Sudan draft education strategy, the GPE secretariat determined that full endorsement of the plan would require its further development over several years and recommended that the government re-submit a less ambitious ‘transitional plan’. An indicative allocation of just US$38 million over four years has been set aside – an amount that falls far short of what is needed. What should have been a test case for the GPE’s effectiveness has become a showcase for what is going wrong in an aid system that is too inflexible, slow-moving and unresponsive to the needs of conflict-affected countries. There is still time to change this picture. The Board of the GPE could demand an urgent review of the response to South Sudan’s education strategy. It is also important that the World Bank steps up to the plate by putting into place a financing programme to support early delivery of results and longterm capacity building. What is clear is that the children of South Sudan have a right to expect something more. In the absence of a strengthened aid effort, South Sudan will fail to achieve the ambitious goals set by its government and demanded by its people. This paper sets out the case for a South Sudan Education Peace Premium (EPP) backed by a US$1. 6 billion aid investment over the period 2012-2016 US$400 annually. The GRSS would need to supplement this aid effort by 12 mobilizing an additional US$100m annually for education spending. Supplemented by an increased resource mobilisation effort on the part of the GRSS, the education peace premium would extend opportunities for some 2. 5 million children and adolescents. Beyond the wider benefits for poverty reduction, peace-building and state-building, returns from the peace premium would include: †¢ †¢ another 1 million primary school age children in school wider benefits for an additional 1. 5 million learners by improving the quality of education emergency provision for 300,000 children displaced by on-going conflicts early childhood provision for 300,000 children under the age of 5 support for half-a-million girls extended opportunities for adolescents and young adults who missed out on opportunities for basic education training for 30,000 teachers another 3000 schools for current and future generations of learners †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Education in South Sudan: investing in a better future Financing for the proposed EPP would be drawn from a range of sources. Success will hinge on a compact between the GRSS and the international community, represented by a range of donors. Our proposal envisages a broader and deeper donor support base for education. We suggest that the GPE provide annual financing of US$90m, with the World Bank co-financing an equivalent amount through the International Development Association (IDA). Drawing on its extensive experience and project portfolio in post-conflict states, the African Development Bank/African Development Fund is well placed to support the development of school infrastructure and support. We propose a financing contribution of around US$40m annually. Less concessional elements in the financing could be secured against future oil revenues. Bilateral donors and the European Union would have to mobilise another US$100 million annually, with non-traditional donors – including China – providing US$30m annually. We also argue that private foundations and charities should play a greater role in supporting education in South Sudan. Delivering an early and substantial education peace premium in South Sudan will be difficult – but the degree of difficulty should not be exaggerated. Sustained progress will require the development of technical and administrative capacity, along with the development of more robust systems for transparency and accountability in public finance. Increased and more equitable public spending is critical. But governance constraints can be overcome by drawing on arrangements that have emerged since the comprehensive peace agreement, as well as the experiences of other countries. To that end, we propose the creation of a pooled fund for education. Jointly managed by donors and the GRSS, this would build on the practices established under the Basic Service Fund (BSF). This has been the most successful of the pooled funding mechanisms in South Sudan, with spending of US$65m to date on primary education, health, water and sanitation. The BSF has been a major source of financing for school construction and teacher training. The great advantage of the facility is that it enables donors to pool risk and resources behind the government’s strategy, working through non-government organisations with a proven track record on delivery. With current pooled funding arrangements in South Sudan about to expire, there is an opportunity to put in place a flexible new structure for education. Over time, the pooled funding mechanism could evolve into a sector-wide support programme. More immediately, it could mobilise support for non-governmental organisations working with government to build capacity and deliver results on the ground. The achievements of non-governmental organisations refute the claim that South Sudan lacks the conditions for an education take-off. Working with a broader alliance of churches, the Episcopal Church of South Sudan has developed the largest teacher inservice training programme in the country, meeting high standards of performance. One of the largest non-governmental organisations providing education is the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee in Education (BRAC) – an agency with a proven track record in reaching highly marginalised communities and training female teachers. Save the Children is leading the implementation of a major alternative education programme financed by the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DfID) and piloting innovative early childhood interventions. We have based our cost-estimates for the education peace premium on the programmes of these and other NGOs with a proven capacity for scaling-up, as well as UN agencies and bilateral donors. In drawing up the proposed plan of action we do not discount the very real difficulties that will have to be addressed. Outcomes will depend on the development of a partnership between the GRSS, donors and nongovernmental organisations, and on political leadership on all sides. Listing problems and enumerating the many technical reasons that can be found either for delaying action, or for testing the water with small-scale pilot programmes, is easy. But South Sudan’s children cannot afford delay and prevarication 13 – and the country cannot afford to waste the potential of a generation of youth. Our proposal combines the four critical requirements for delivering results: achievable targets, an efficient delivery mechanism, predictable aid, and a compact between the GRSS, donors and non-governmental organisations. Headline figures for the cost of the proposed programme have to be considered against the potential flow of benefits, as measured by the number of children in school, the expanded opportunities for learning, and the renewed hope that will come with progress in education. The US$400m a year for four years that is required may seem unaffordable. The question that has to be asked is whether the world is willing to stand-by while 2. 5 million children lose their chance for an education that could lift them out of poverty, create jobs, build a more peaceful and resilient society, and support economic growth. Failure to expand opportunities for education will increase the risk of more conflict, which will in turn leave donors facing the prospect of increased humanitarian aid costs. Viewed against this alternative, the cost of implementing the actions proposed in this report is a small price to pay for a very high return. ii Education in South Sudan: investing in a better future An agenda for action This report sets out an agenda for achieving an educational breakthrough in South Sudan. Proposals include: †¢ Additional aid of US$400m annually for four years, with domestic budget resources increased by US$100m annually. The GPE and IDA to mobilise US$180m through a co-financing arrangement. An independent assessment of the GPE’s review of the South Sudan draft education strategy. The creation of a pooled fund for education in South Sudan to provide a focal point for government support. Measures to support disadvantaged children, including financial incentives for parents to keep children in school, especially young girls; expanded education provision in conflict-affected areas; and programmes for adolescents. Expanded programmes for training teachers and recruitment of female teachers. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 14 Introduction The Republic of South Sudan is sub-Saharan Africa’s newest nation. Established in July 2011, the country achieved statehood facing enormous challenges. The Government of South Sudan (GRSS), created with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005, inherited none of the institutions associated with an independent state. South Sudan’s human development indicators are among the worst in the world. The human capital and physical infrastructure are limited. Insecurity remains a major concern across many parts of the country. Yet independence has unleashed a wave of hope, optimism and expectation. Having endured a brutal and long-running civil war that claimed over 2 million lives, South Sudan’s people have a right to expect a ‘peace dividend’, including improved access to basic services, more secure livelihoods, and greater safety. Failure to deliver in these areas would be a lost opportunity with tragic human consequences for the people of South Sudan, and with damaging implication for peace and security not just across the new nation, but across the region. Delivering the education peace dividend Perhaps more than any other sector, education has the potential to deliver an early, large and highly visible peace dividend. The education system in any country is a point of contact between governments and their citizens. And in a country like South Sudan, where the civil war destroyed educational opportunities for generations, the presence of functioning schools, teachers and books has the potential to demonstrate that the peace is delivering. Moreover, South Sudan’s people attach a very high value to education, with survey evidence showing that parents identify schooling – alongside food and water – as being a major priority. Across South Sudan, parents and young people are striving to overturn a legacy of illiteracy, restricted opportunity, and poor quality schooling. In towns and villages across the country, desperately poor people are working to get their children into an embryonic and over-stretched education system. The GRSS is working with partners to strengthen that system and build capacity. While the term ‘post-conflict reconstruction’ is widely used to describe the process now underway in South Sudan, in the case of education – and other basic services – it is misleading. Six years ago this was a country without an education system. Even today, only the initial foundations are in place. So this is a case of post-conflict construction in a country that inherited no infrastructure and has very limited human resources. Against this backdrop, the achievements registered in education since the 2005 peace accords have been extraordinary. The number of children in primary school has doubled in five years. Over 500 classrooms have been constructed. Led by a clear statement of intent on the part of President Salva Kiir, the GRSS has put in place ambitious plans to accelerate progress towards the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). South Sudan’s constitution includes a provision establishing the entitlement to ‘free and compulsory education at the primary level’. The South Sudan Development Plan includes a wide range of 2015/16 targets for education aimed at putting the country on track for the MDGs. iii The Ministry of General Education and Instruction (MoGEI) is finalising a strategy 15 aimed at translating these targets and highlevel political commitments into policies and spending commitments aimed at achieving the MDGs and wider Education for All goals by 2022. iv Currently available in draft form, that strategy Promoting learning for all aims to get the country on course for universal primary education by 2016, with expanded provision of second chance education, measures to improve learning achievement levels and a range of strategies aimed at closing the gender gap. The document, which has been drawn up in close consultation with the Local Donor Group, bears testimony to the professionalism of staff in the Ministry of General Education and Instruction (MoGEI). Several bilateral donors, UN agencies and non-governmental organisations are supporting the reconstruction effort, often working under difficult conditions. UNICEF’s Go to School Programme helped to double school enrolment in three years. Both the government and its partners have demonstrated a capacity for flexibility and innovation, building classrooms, delivering textbooks and training teachers. v Nongovernmental organisations are active across the country, often operating in areas affected by conflict. While experience under the World Bank-managed Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF) was disappointing, another pooled funding arrangement – the Basic Services Fund (BSF) – delivered cost-effective results, notably in school construction and teacher training. One of the strengths of the BSF has been its ability to lower transaction costs and achieve economies of scale in delivery. For those who question the capacity of international aid and partnerships in education to deliver results on the ground, the evidence from South Sudan tells a different story. Donors and non-governmental organisations have found ways of delivering results, working in the process to build government capacity. 16. The challenge now is to build on best practice and scale-up the level of ambition in an environment that may deteriorate as a result of budget austerity. The oil crisis Like all other sectors, education stands to be severely affected by the ongoing crisis over oil exports. Failure to resolve that crisis will have grave consequences for South Sudan (as it will for Khartoum), raising the spectre of a reversal of the fragile gains in education, health, water and other areas that have been achieved over the six years since the comprehensive peace agreement. With oil accounting for 98 per cent of government revenues, even a modest loss of export earnings would lead to significant cuts in expenditure. The background to the crisis can be briefly summarised. Since the comprehensive peace agreement, oil from South Sudan has been exported through pipelines from Sudan. As of March 2012, pipelines from two of the three oilfields were close to shut-down. The GRSS decision was prompted by a heavy transit tax levied by the Government of Sudan and a subsequent seizure of oil shipments by the government in Khartou.

Important Factors In Selection Methods

Important Factors In Selection Methods INTRODUCTION The human resource planning is very important and necessary part of an organization. It plays important part in the long run success of an organization and there are several methods which are adopted by different organizations for selection of new employees so that the long term objectives of an organization could be achieved. The hiring process is not a easy task. Every organization has its own selection process according to its need. The selection procedure is very important effort to select right person for right job at right time. The various selection methods are used to obtain an assessment about the qualities of candidates. These selection methods are used to check overall personality, attitude, aptitude, knowledge, adoptability, confidence, communication skills, and managerial skills. If any organization wants to gain long term success in the marketplace, it must develop valuable selection techniques for recruiting new incumbents. The future job performance depends upon the selection of potential employee. It is very complicated and time consuming effort to find out desired talent in the pound of candidates. There are several types of Interviews and paper-pencil measures (tests) which are used at a time to analyse the future job performance of candidates. Sometimes a one organization uses more than one selection method; it all depends upon the nature sensitivity of the job, organization size and number of applicants. Among all selection procedures, the Interview is the most frequent selection method to check oral responses regarding any particular inquiry. Interview is the essential part of selection procedure in most of organizations. Although paper pencil measures also in cycle to check different attributes of candidates but after examining the candidates by various selection methods, mostly organization use interview to finalize the candidate. The validity of interview is often criticised but on this base the importance of interview can not be minimised. An organization also can not fully rely on the validity paper pencil measures. It is a complex process sometime both methods becomes essential and sometime only interview or test is enough for employee selection but it all depends upon requirement, number of candidates, organization size and financial condition of the organization. Interview is still most famous selection tool (Judge et al., 2000; Posthuma et al, 2002). Employment interview is the best selection method (Barclay, 1999; Garman Lesowitz, 2005). There are different important factors in selection methods which are considered by management of firms for getting right staff at right time. Organizations consider such factors like previous work experience, qualification, knowledge, abilities, skills, attitude, personality, and other characteristics. There are also some problems and issues which arise during selection process and these are very important to handle to make selection on merit. For example the perception of interviewer, biasness, discrimination regarding sex, age, racial, religion, disability, physical appearance etc. The selection method must be neat and clean of such prejudices. SELECTION METHODS The selection method is the process of gathering and analysing the information about a person for the purpose of offering new job.(Gatewood Field 2001). There are two stages first is to define the requirement and objective of selection and the second stage is set up the selection method according to that requirement.(Guion, 1998; Patterson Ferguson, 2007).The selection method for hiring new employee depends upon the nature of job, organizational structure, mode of business, and number of candidates etc. Organizations recruitment criteria also depend upon time, cost and need of potential employee. Selection is the final part of total staffing process of an organization. The human resource department takes three basic steps in employee selection process i.e. planning, recruitment and selection. First of all, the human resource department starts planning by projecting the demands of organization for new employees with particular skills and abilities. In the second step , the organizat ion starts advertising to get in touch with potential external incumbent and posting internally to catch new employee within the organization In the third step, the organization finalised the new employee from the pool of candidates which are generated by recruitment process. The organization use different selection methods for hiring right person at right place and at right time. ( Kramar 2008) VALIDITY OF SELECTION METHODS In the context of selection, validity means meaningfulness, the appropriateness, and usefulness of the inferences made about applicants during the selection process.( Gatewood Field 2001).What is the validity of selection method and how it can be determined? These are the basic questions which arise in mind when we examine the validity. Actually the validity deals with the issue that whether the actual performance of the applicant is according to the expected performance which we incurred during the selection method. If the actual and expected performance is very close to each other then we can say the selection method for hiring new employee is valid and if both performances have gaps then the selection method must be change. (Price 2007) IMPORTANT FACTORS IN SELECTION METHODS There are various factors i.e. education, job experience, cognitive ability tests, integrity test, personality tests, IQ tests, interview, references. (Dipboye, 1992; Randall and Randall, 1990). Effective selection requirements should be blueprinted, either by gaining expert views (e.g. Janis Hatef, 2008) or conducting an appropriate job analysis (Patterson et al., 2000; Patterson et al., 2008).The organization takes two considerations in order to select new employee. Firstly analyse the individual differences between applicants by comparing their knowledge, skills and abilities and secondly decide the most appropriate selection method. (Gatewood Field 2001)The knowledge, skills, abilities are very important to determine potential candidate as well as previous job experience also matter. The responsibilities and duties of previous work and qualification can help a lot in understanding new work environment. The other characteristics like personality, attitude and intelligence as wel l as physical examination are also very important factors. Some organization also considers previous background and criminal records in their hiring process. 4.1. APPROPRIATE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIES There are several stages of employee selection. First of all knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) of applicant are determined, secondly highlight the contents of job and to determine whether the existing employees skills are appropriate to job nature or not? This procedure is called job analysis. After job analysis the duties and responsibilities are described according to nature of job in documentary form call job description and then what type of human resource is required for that particular job called job specification. (Dessler 2011).The necessary skills, knowledge and abilities which are necessary to perform the job are called job requirements. These can be qualification, experience, training, aptitudes and abilities. (Gatewood Field 2001)The knowledge, skills and abilities ( KSAs) are the basic important factor which is specially examined in the applicant in recruitment process. There are also other two important factors i.e. previous work experience and other characteristi cs. Example: 1 (JAPANESE AUTOMOBILE) Japanese automobile companies generally consider organization dedication, social need and skills, and attention in work.( www.fbe.hku.hk/Programme/Undergraduate/doc/courses/2008-2009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Example: 2 (TOYOTA USA ) The selection process of Toyota (USA) takes minimum eighteen hours which consists of a general knowledge exam, attitude test, interpersonal skills, assessment centre, an extensive personal interview, and a physical exam. (www.fbe.hku.hk/Programme/Undergraduate/doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Article accessed on 29/01/2011) WORK EXPERIENCE The duties and responsibilities handled by previous jobs are very important to understand the work criteria and requirements. The experienced persons knowledge and skills are the great assets for organization and it is the main benefit of knowledgeable persons. Organizations take advantages of their developed personal relations due to previous job works so it is very beneficial for future growth of the organization.( Price-2007) Example: 3 (BERNARD HOLDANE ASSOCIATION) The chairman of Bernard Holdane Associates, Jerry Weinger, says candidates should have strong record of distinctions and success in a challenging environment like down economies. (Price-2007 ). EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Qualification is very important factor for selection of new employees. Every organization seeks qualified persons for hiring. It verifies the educational claims of candidates. The job descriptions and specifications are set out according to qualification. (Kramar 2008) Example: 4 (HRA INDUSTRIES ) Qualification is matched with requirement in selection process of HRA industrial. (www.hr-guide.com/data/016.htm accessed on 29/01/2011) PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS The other characteristics refer to different personality traits as well as his professional attitude. Many organizations examine personal attributes of candidates, his communication style, presentation skills, oral and written competency of language, confidence, behaviour adoptability etc. These all characteristics build up the personality of the candidate and organization has to seek best potential candidate who have good professional and personal attributes. ( Price 2007) Example: 5 (TOYOTA) Toyota, a Japanese company give more importance to personal traits as compare to technical skills. (Price 2007). Example: 6 (PRET A MANAGER) A famous Company Pret A Manager which have 2800 employees on 118 shops, received 55000 application for 1500 places. According to recruitments strategy of Pret A Manger, the candidates have to show sociable personality, positive approach to life in interview.( Beardwell 2007). PHYSICAL EXAMINATION Candidates are physically examined in process of hiring to discover the diseases and medical limitations for candidate. The future job performance can be affected by candidates health issues so it is necessary to check medical complications before hiring. (Price 2007) Example: 7 (AFG INDUSTRIES)The hiring process of AFG Industries for factory workers includes screening formal resumes , personality testing, that suggest some plant jobs, panel interviews and a medical exam. www.fbe.hku.hk/ Programme/ Undergraduate/ doc/courses/2008-2009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011). CRIMINAL RECORDS AND BACKGROUNDCHECKS The criminal records and background checking depends upon the nature and type of organization. This is not a common practice of all the organizations. It is very time consuming and costly. There are several jobs like police jobs, security concern jobs, teaching jobs and sensitive nature jobs where criminal records and background verification is very necessary. Example: 8 ( AMERICAN COMPANIES) The professional back ground companies are getting space in almost 80 percent of American companies due to importance of background checking and necessity of verification of criminal records of candidates.. (www.articlesbase.com/human-resources-articles/pre-employment-background-screening-company-a-reliable-hiring-outsource-for-human-resource-departments-3414302 accessed on 30/01/ 2011) CHOICE OF SELECTION METHOD After identifying the skills and abilities the organization have to take decision about the choice of selection methods. The organization can develop its own selection method to assess the applicant or can adopt selection method of other organizations. The most important test include exercise of assessment centres, cognitive ability testing, integrity testing which are used to assess job performance (Campion et al. 1994; Howard, 1997; Randall, 1990; Salgado and Moscoso, 2002; Wright et al., 1989).So there are various employee selection methods utilizing by different organizations but the most famous selection method is job interview. The other methods could be aptitude test, personality test, reference, assessment centres, background checking, cognitive ability test, drugs test etc. All these methods are used to assess the applicants skills and abilities and to determine any situation which is becoming the root cause of performance failure. The selection method must be appropriate to nature of job and it must be accurate as much as possible in providing the information. The accuracy of selection method depends upon reliability and validity of selection method. IMPORTANT SELECTION METHODS The organizations use various selection methods according to nature of job, size of organization and number of candidates. The organization can use one or more selection methods; it depends upon the reliable and valid so that expected performance of employee could be achieved. (Price 2007) Example: 9 ( MAZDA) In USA, the famous company Mazda is recruiting new employees by assessment of several selection methods. The methods include application forms, aptitude test, group problem solving, personal interview, and previous job experience. (Price 2007) The important methods can be described as: Application Forms and CVs Online Screening and Short Listing Psychometric Testing Ability and Aptitude Tests Personality Profiling Presentation Group exercises Assessment centres References INTERVIEW (Anderson Cunningham-Snell 2000) 5.1. APPLICATION FORMS CVs The application forms mostly use in public sectors. The application forms are prescribed in a formulated way which helps to know about important information of incumbents and this information can be examined during other tests and interviews. The main problem is that sometime the application forms are so lengthy and complicated. CVs are commonly used in private sector to gain initial and necessary information about the candidates qualification, previous job experiences and other distinctions but the problem with CVs is that CVs are presented by applicant in way to which he consider himself more fit for the job. So it is difficult for employer to judge the candidate only by CV. (Anderson Cunningham-Snell 2000) Example: 10 (GOVT INSTITUTIONS) In Pakistan, almost all the Govt institutions require the application and CV from candidates for hiring and selection of candidates for positions. ( personal experience) ONLINE SCREENING AND SHORT LISTING The Online screening is the quick procedure to filter potential incumbents among the huge number of applicants. Generally there are two criterions to short list the candidate by online screening, one is applicants experience and other is qualification. In this method scores are set according to criterions and candidates are shortlisted on the base of those scores. This is very useful method to save valuable time by short listing the applicants in very short time but costly in a sense of implementation of software and uploading of online information for screening applicants. Sometime potential candidate missed the chance of getting opportunity of that required job due to inappropriate key words during search. (Anderson Cunningham-Snell 2000) Example: 11 ( WOOLWORTH) The one of the largest retailer in the market Woolworth is using web-based recruitment policy to hire new employees. Woolworth have 2800 staff in its 800 stores and used online screening method very successfully. (Beardwell 2007). Example: 12 (CADBURY SCHWEPPS) The Cadbury Schweppes have introduced online verbal and numerical reason tests for its recruitment process and received about 4000 applications for just 20 places.( Beardwell 2007) PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING Psychometric testing refers to mental measurement. It helps in testing of ability and aptitude as well as personality profiling. Trained and qualified staff is necessary to arrange psychometric testing. Many organizations use these tests with the interview method as a part of selection process. (Beardwell 2007).There must be a proper staff for suitable psychometric testing. The psychometric testing can be divided by two parts. In first par only ability and aptitude is checked and in second part personality is judged. It is essential that candidate are offered feedback and the candidate must know that how information is worked during test. Example: 13 (MORGAN BANKS) The Morgan Banks recruitment consultancy conducted about 10 to 15 psychometric tests in selection procedure of hiring new employees. (Kramar 2007) Example: 14 (BT COMPANY) BT company always consider psychometric test as important tool for hiring new employees. ( Kramar 2007) Example: 15 (AFR COMPANY) AFR a famous organization is also conduction psychometric tests for its recruitment. (Kramar 2007) ABILITY AND APTITUDE TESTS The ability and aptitude tests are very useful to analyse general intelligence, spatial ability, verbal ability, sensory and motor abilities, clerical ability, numerical ability, mechanical ability, diagrammatical ability. The logical reasoning and mental performance is checked by these tests because these tests are designed very comprehensively. It include multiple question which are to be answered in a strictly time. For example if the questions are thirty ,the time would be 30 minutes. ( Gomez-Majla 2010) Example: 16 (USA) In USA ability test is conducted for entry level jobs and Govt. Is saving almost $15 billion per year. ( Gomez-Majla 2010) Example: 17 ( TOYOTA USA ) The selection process of Toyota (USA) takes minimum eighteen hours which consists of a general knowledge exam, attitude test, interpersonal skills, assessment centre, an extensive personal interview, and a physical exam. (www.fbe.hku.hk/Programme/Undergraduate/doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Article accessed on 29/01/2011) PERSONALITY PROFILING Personality profiling is also very important for acquiring of good job. Sometime personality of person is not suitable to job so its difficult to handle that job for such a person. But if the individual can shift himself according to job criterion and suitability then it can be possible to get particular job.The relative importance of different selection factors; The personality and appearance of characteristics that are observed in an interview and rated as important include being energetic, confident, honest, organised, and verbally fluent (Spina et al. (2000). Example: 18 (ALLIED SIGNUAL) Personality tests are very important selection measure. It is used by companies such as Allied Signal, 3M.and Apple as selection criteria. (www.fbe.hku.hk/Programme/Undergraduate/doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Example. 19 ( ATT, Honeywell, Citicorp, ) ATT, Honeywell and Citicorp are also used personality test as selection criteria. (www.fbe.hku.hk/Programme/ Undergraduate/ doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Example: 20 (HAYS) HAYS human resource management department specially focus on candidates personality and character profiling. (Human Resource Management (Kramar 2007) Example 21 (AFG INDUSTRIES) The hiring process of AFG Industries for factory workers includes screening formal resumes (not job applications), personality testing, pre-employment training that simulates some plant jobs, interviews with panels of manager s and/or employees, and a medical exam.(www.fbe.hku.hk/ Programme/ Undergraduate/ doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) PRESENTATION In senior level jobs the selection method of presentation is widely used. A topic is given to the candidate and within a time frame he has to deliver a presentation. Sometime candidate receive presentation topic with interview letter and sometime on the spot topic is given. Candidate may have to deliver presentation on power point or overhead projector. (Kramar 2007) GROUP EXERCISES This selection method is used to filter a potential candidate among the group of applicants. The candidates have to debate on a topic or play a given role to show their knowledge, skills and abilities about the given topic. The observers give scores to candidates according to set criterion. (Price 2007). Example: 22 ( MAZDA) In USA, the famous company Mazda is recruiting new employees by assessment of several selection methods. The methods include application forms, aptitude test, group problem solving, personal interview, and previous job experience. (Price 2007). ASSESSMENT CENTRES The assessment centres refers to multiple testing methods. It includes ability testing, group exercise, presentation, aptitude testing, personality profiling etc. This selection method gives the opportunity to the candidate to show his knowledge, skills and abilities and get higher marks irrespective of his previous academic background. This selection method must be fair and neutral.(Beardwell 2007) Example: 23 ( GKN MANUFACTURING COMPANY) 22 GKN, the famous manufacturing company, having business in all over the world is using assessment centre selection method for recruiting new employees. It receive 1000 applications for just only 20 positions ( Beardwell 2007 ) Example: 24 (AT T COMPANY) The American Telephone and telegraph Company (ATT) recruits employees on the basis of Assessment centres. (Human Resource Management by Alan Price 3rd edition, ch 15, p 376). REFERENCES References are also considered very important in selection process. It is difficult for candidate to get a reasonable job with substandard references especially in a private sector. (Gromes- Majla 2010). The basic objective of references is to get information about the applicants qualification, employment history, experience etc. Generally reference is taken from current and former employees. If candidate is not working then the personal reference is demanded. Most organization demand references in written either in form of unstructured letter or in form. Example: 25 (US COURTS) 207 U.S Courts recruits new employees on the basis of reference check. The formal employers feedback is give high importance in selection procedure. ( Gromes-Majla 2010) 5.10. INTERVIEW An interview is a process intended to get the information from a person through oral responses to oral techniques. ( Dessler 2011) A selection interview is a selection procedure designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants oral responses to oral enquires. ( Michael McDaniel et al.,1994 ).The validity of interview is often criticised but still interview is interview is most famous selection tool (Judge et al., 2000; Posthuma et al, 2002).Still, practitioners continue to use the employment interview as their primary selection tool (Barclay, 1999; Judge et al., 2000). The non cognitive attributes of candidates are often assessed by interviews. (Otero et al., 2006) According to Nayer about 99% of USA medical schools ,interviews are basic element of the admissions process (e.g. Johnson Edwards, 1991).Interview is the procedure to assess the knowledge, skills and abilities of the candidates by his oral responses towards oral enquiries. Interview is good tool to an alyse the confidence, knowledge, presentation, communication and managerial skills. Some critics question about the validity of interview but still interview is the most appropriate and most useful selection method for hiring new employees. Example: 26 (SUN MICROSYSTEM) In the hiring process of Sun Microsystems , there are multiple interviews for hiring new Organization can use one or more than one selection method for recruitment according to job requirement. www.fbe.hku.hk/ Programme/ Undergraduate/doc/courses/2008-009/BUSI0075/Fit.pdf Article accessed on 29/01/2011) Article accessed on 29/01/2011) 5.10.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SELECTION INTERVIEW The selection interview is can be classified by three heads i.e. structure, content and administers. STRUCTURE VS. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS INTERVIEW CONTENT ( TYPE OF QUESTIONS) HOW THE FIRMS ADMINISTER THE INTERVIEW (Dessler 2011) STRUCTURED INTERVIEW According to key requirements of job , the structured interview process is formulated and list of questions are set up. Each applicant have to face a group of interviewers and they score them on the basis of their performance. Recent studies of employment interviews have concluded that structured interviews offer greater predictive validity than unstructured interviews (Judge et al., 2000; Ployhart, 2006; Barclay, 1999). If selection system is challenged the structured interviews have more important regarding legal defensibility.(Posthuma et al., 2002)The preset standardised questions are set in the structured interview which is very helpful scrutiny of potential candidate from large number of candidates and gaining accurate results. The structured interviews are very useful and more comprehensive as compare to unstructured. Structure in interviews is one of the generally vital arbiters of its achievement in the calculation of act (e.g. Huffcutt Arthur, 1994). The structured intervi ews have higher foretelling and parallel validity than unstructured interviews (e.g. McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, Maurer, 1994; Wiesner Cronshaw, 1988). The structured interviews were apparent positively and impartially. (Westwood et al. (2008) UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW The unstructured conventional interviews assessed personality dimensions and social skills while the structured behavioral interview mainly assessed job knowledge, job experience, and situational judgment. (Salgado and Moscoso 2002). Unstructured interviews do not use a standardised set of questions, do not have objective scoring protocols (Latif et al., 2004), and are often prone to biases that affect ratings (Patterson Ferguson, 2007) Despite evidence of their low reliability and validity, unstructured interviews are still used for selection purposes. In a recent survey of pharmacy colleges in the US, only 13% of those that interviewed applicants used a pre-defined list of questions (Joyner et al., 2007).In the unstructured interview there is not set format and manager asks question according to his mind and preferences. It is friendly conversation between interviewer and interviewee. Courneya et al. (2005) compared structured with unstructured interviews, and reported that struct ured interviews put interviewees at ease and allowed them to express themselves more than unstructured interviews. INTERVIEW CONTENT (WHAT TYPE OF QUESTIONS TO ASK) The type of question which are asked in interview called interview content. There can be different categories of questions which can be situational, behavioural, job-related, and stress questions. These questions are used to determine attitude and decision powers of the candidate. There are series of question in which candidates overall reaction and behaviour is checked. If any satiation is given to candidate for response that interview is called situational interview and in some situations candidates are asked how he behaved in past called behavioural interview. In some situation interviewers intentionally ask such questions to candidate which create stress , such interviews are called stress interviews. Candidates are asked questions about past experience, responsibilities and duties, such interviews are named as job-related interviews. In all such interviews candidates overall behaviour, reaction, response, patience level and personality attributes are examined ( Dessler 2011) HOW FIRMS ADMINISTERS THE INTERVIEW Interviews are administered by employers by various ways i.e. face-to-face (one to one) or panel interview, sequentially or all at once and computerised or personally. (Dessler 2011) These interviews also can be telephone, online or video/web based interviews according to nature and circumstances. Organizations mostly use two types of interview; one to one and sequential. In one to one two persons meet and in sequential a series of questions are asked to candidate. Another one is panel interview in which a groups of interviewers meet each candidate with set of questions an score them according to their answers. There are also some other interviews like computerised interviews which are conducted due to distance and saving the precious time of organization. In the computerised interviews the applicants oral or/ and computerised replies are taken in response of computerised oral or visual or written questions. Some organization conduct telephone interviews to ease the applicant or due to distance problem. In this interview some questions are asked about the knowledge ,skills and abilities of the applicant and it gives more confidence to candidate as compare to face to face interview. The online or video/web based interviews are also conducted due to distance and easiness of both organization and applicant. Through video conference each candidate is asked a set of questions and employers examine their responses. (Dessler 2011) Example: 27 ( MONITOR CONSULTING FIRM) Monitor is a famous consulting firm uses group interview as a selection method. Applicants are given a problem to solve and they are monitored by interviewers. (www.kelloggforum.org/top-10-consulting-firms accessed on 5/02/2010) 5.10.2 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW I. ADVANTAGES: Interview is useful to find out important information about candidate and his/her attributes. Employer can easily determine the communication and social skills of candidate. The supplementary information can be determined by interview. The verbal fluency can also be checked. It is helpful to find candidates job knowledge. Interview is very useful to compare candidates having equal qualification. Candidate also gets the opportunity to ask questions to interviewer if he/she has any confusion. II. DISADVANTAGES: Personal liking and disliking can be major factor of biasness. Usually interviewer made his mind about the selection of candidate in first few minutes and then remaining part of interview is just used to validate his decision. There can be a great chance of prejudice as according to research it has been proved that minorities are ignored in interviews. There can be a more weight to negative information. Validity and reliability of interviews are always in questioned. (www.hr-guide.com/data/G311.htm Accessed 0n 02/02/2011) IMPORTANT ISSUES IN CONDUCTING INTERVIEW The main purpose of interview is to hire right person for right job but there are some issues which arise during the process of interview which may become hurdle in the neat and clean process of selection. These are the problems which are necessary to address. First of all the perception of the interviewer can affect the selection of the process. The interviewers inability to understand the candidates characteristics and attribute can become big barrier in the selection of potential candidate. Secondly the biased behaviour of the interviewer can also be the hurdle in selection of right applicant. The discrimination of sex, age, racial, relig